Blanc, A., du Sel, G.P. & Daguzan, J., 1999. Relationships between length of prey/predator for the most important prey of the cuttlefish Sepia officinalis L. (Mollusca: Cephalopoda). Malacologia, 41(1), 139-145. Merseyside BioBank., 2018. Merseyside BioBank (unverified). Occurrence dataset: https://doi.org/10.15468/iou2ld accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-10-01. Tonkins, B.M., Tyers, A.M. & Cooke, G.M., 2015. Cuttlefish in captivity: an investigation into housing and husbandry for improving welfare. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 168, 77-83.

Lifespan.If food availability is restricted in early life this may result in delayed maturation and an extended lifespan (Boletzky, 1974). Mortality in females occurs after spawning, which can take several weeks to a few months (Guerra, 2006). Biannual life cycles have been observed frequently. In the English Channel, hatchlings born from July to September grew rapidly. The juveniles migrate from the inshore nursery grounds to overwintering in deeper waters. They return inshore as soon as they exhibit the first signs of sexual maturity (Guerra, 2006). Mating.Mating occurs in deeper water. Mate choice occurs in female Sepia officinalis and appears to be a preference, not for dominance, but for the absence of zebra banding. This might be because zebra branding infers aggression in the male (Boal, 1997). Males carry up to 1400 spermatophores and females 150-4000 eggs depending on their size. Spermatophores are placed in the female’s buccal membrane located above the mouth (Guerra, 2006). A single pair can mate several times and males have been observed to guard their mate post-insemination (Hanlon et al., 1999). Females are polyandrous and can accept and store sperm from multiple males, and can control which sperm to fertilize her eggs (Naud et al., 2005). This is referred to as the ‘cryptic female choice hypothesis’ (Eberhard, 1996). More food was consumed by sexually mature females than non-sexually mature females and mature males suggesting a higher demand (Castro & Guerra, 1999). Bristol Regional Environmental Records Centre, 2017. BRERC species records recorded over 15 years ago. Occurrence dataset: https://doi.org/10.15468/h1ln5p accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-09-25.It has been proposed (John Rundle, personal communication, cited in Tonkins et al., 2015) that dark figures leaning over tanks may be interpreted as predators by captive cuttlefish. This may lead to a defence response such as digging, swimming, and inking.

Von Boletzky, S., 1974. Effets de la sous-nutrition prolongée sur le développement de la coquille de Sepia officinalis L. (Mollusca, Cephalopoda). Bulletin de la Societe Zoologique de France, 99, 667-673.Castro, B.G. & Guerra, A., 1990. The diet of Sepia officinalis (Linnaeus, 1758) and Sepia elegans (D'Orbigny, 1835) (Cephalopoda, Sepioidea) from the Ria de Vigo (NW Spain). Scientia Marina, 54(4), 375-388.